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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Parallel import</span></span>

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</p><p>A <b>parallel import</b> is a non-<a href="Counterfeit" title="Counterfeit">counterfeit</a> <a href="Goods" title="Goods">product</a> imported from another country without the permission of the <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> owner. Parallel imports are often referred to as a <a href="Grey_market" title="Grey market">grey product</a> and are implicated in issues of <a href="International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, and <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Parallel importing is based on concept of <a href="Exhaustion_of_intellectual_property_rights" title="Exhaustion of intellectual property rights">exhaustion of intellectual property rights</a>; according to this concept, when the product is first launched on the market in a particular jurisdiction, parallel importation is authorized to all residents in the state in question.<sup id="cite_ref-PennState_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PennState-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some countries allow it but others do not.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Parallel importing of pharmaceuticals reduces price of pharmaceuticals by introducing competition; <a href="TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">TRIPS Agreement</a> in Article 6 states that this practice cannot be challenged under the WTO dispute settlement system and so is effectively a matter of national discretion.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The practice of parallel importing is often advocated in the case of software, music, printed texts and electronic products, and occurs for several reasons:

</p>

<ol><li>Different versions of a product are produced for sale in different markets. For example, the UK edition of <i><a href="Top_Gear_(magazine)" title="Top Gear (magazine)">Top Gear Magazine</a></i> is officially sold in the UK, and <i><a href="Top_Gear_(magazine)" title="Top Gear (magazine)">Top Gear Australia</a></i> is officially sold in Australia. However, some unofficial distributors in <a href="Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> also sell the UK edition of <i>Top Gear Magazine</i>.</li>

<li>Companies, either the manufacturer or the distributor, set different <a href="Price_point" title="Price point">price points</a> for their products in different markets. Parallel importers ordinarily purchase products in one country at a price (P1) which is cheaper than the price at which they are sold in a second country (P2), import the products into the second country, and benefitting from <a href="Arbitrage" title="Arbitrage">arbitrage</a>, sell the products in that country at a price which is usually between P1 and P2.</li>

<li>Consumers who are able to obtain more competitively priced items and may be able to avoid local sales taxes, are placed on an even footing with consumers who have less access to overseas sales online.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Some advocacy groups support parallel importing on the grounds of enhancing the free flow of information.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_approach">International approach</h2></div>

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<p>Parallel importing is regulated differently in different jurisdictions; there is no consistency in laws dealing with parallel imports between countries. Neither the <a href="Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a> nor the <a href="Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property" title="Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property">Paris Convention</a> explicitly prohibit parallel importation.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div>

<p>The Australian market is an example of a relatively small consumer market which does not benefit from the <a href="Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a> and competition available in the larger global economies. Australia tends to have lower levels of competition in many industries and oligopolies are common in industries like banking, supermarkets, and mobile telecommunications.

</p><p>Private enterprise will use product segmentation strategies to legally maximise profit. This often includes varying service levels, pricing and product features to improve the so-called "fit" to the local marketplace. However, this segmentation may mean identical products at higher prices. This can be termed price discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the advent of the Internet, Australian consumers can readily compare prices globally and have been able to identify products exhibiting price discrimination, also known as the "<a href="Australia_Tax" title="Australia Tax">Australia Tax</a>".

</p><p>In 1991, the Australian Government resolved to remove parallel import restrictions from a range of products except cars. It followed this up with legislation making it legal to source music and software CDs from overseas and import them into Australia. An Australian Productivity Commission report recommended in July 2009 that legislation be extended to legalise the parallel importing of books, with three years' notice for publishers.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commission also recommended abolishing restrictions on parallel importing of cars.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Federal Court of Australia <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/FCAFC/2012/130.html">decision</a> has ruled that parallel imported items with valid trademarks are subject to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/tma1995121/s123.html">Section 123 of the Trade Mark Act</a>.

</p><p>Various Australian Parliament committees have investigated allegations of price discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union/European_Economic_Area">European Union/European Economic Area</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (and <a href="European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">European Economic Area</a>) require the doctrine of international exhaustion to exist between member states, but EU legislation for trademarks, design rights and copyright prohibits its application to goods put on the market outside the EU/EEA.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the <i><a href="Federal_Court_of_Justice" title="Federal Court of Justice">Bundesgerichtshof</a></i> has held that the <a href="Exhaustion_of_intellectual_property_rights" title="Exhaustion of intellectual property rights">doctrine of international exhaustion</a> governs parallel importation, subject to the EU rules above.

</p>

<p>In Hong Kong, parallel importation is permitted under both the Trade Mark and (amended) Copyright Ordinance before The Copyright (Amendment) Ordinance 2007 came into force 6 July.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3></div>

<p><a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>'s intellectual property rights law prohibits audiovisual articles marketed for export from being sold domestically, and such sale of "re-imported" CDs are illegal.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

<p>In the United States, courts have established that parallel importation is legal.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of <i><a href="Kirtsaeng_v._John_Wiley_%26_Sons%2C_Inc." title="Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.">Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</a></i>, the US Supreme Court held that the <a href="First-sale_doctrine" title="First-sale doctrine">first-sale doctrine</a> applies to copies of a copyrighted work lawfully made abroad, thus permitting importation and resale of many product categories.

</p><p>Moreover, the Science, State, Justice, and Commerce, and Related Agencies, Appropriations Act of 2006 prohibits future free trade agreements from categorically disallowing the parallel import of patented products.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3></div>

<p>Article 36(2) of the Trademark Act of Taiwan provides that "where goods have been put on the domestic or foreign market under a registered trademark by the proprietor or with his/her consent, the proprietor is not entitled to claim trademark rights on such goods, unless such claim is to prevent the condition of the goods been changed, impaired, reprocessed or reformed by a third party after such goods have been put on the market or there exist other legitimate reasons."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Automobiles">Automobiles</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Grey_import_vehicle" title="Grey import vehicle">Grey import vehicle</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3></div>

<p>The United States has unique automobile design legislation administered by the <a href="National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration" title="National Highway Traffic Safety Administration">National Highway Traffic Safety Administration</a>. Certain car makers find the required modifications too expensive. In the past, this created demand for <a href="Grey_import_vehicle" title="Grey import vehicle">grey import vehicles</a>, where certain models are modified for individual customers to meet these requirements at a higher cost than if it had been done by the original manufacturer. This procedure interferes with the marketing scheme of the manufacturer, who might plan to import a less powerful car and force consumers to accept it. The Imported Vehicle Safety Compliance Act of 1988 basically ended the gray market by requiring manufacturer certification of U.S.-bound cars.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

<p>In 2016, the Ministry of Commerce and seven other departments of China issued the <i>Several Opinions on Promoting the Pilot Program of Parallel Automobile Imports</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2019, the Ministry of Commerce and six other departments subsequently issued the <i>Opinions on Further Promoting the Development of Parallel Automobile Imports</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parallel-imported_foodstuffs,_etc.">Parallel-imported foodstuffs, etc.</h2></div>

<p>Markets for parallel imports and locally made products sometimes exist alongside each other even though the parallel imports are markedly more expensive. This may be for various reasons, but is mostly observed in foodstuffs and toiletry.

</p><p>Due to the nature of hotels, travellers often have little information on where to shop except in the immediate vicinity. Grocery shops opened to serve brand-name hotels often feature parallel-imported foodstuffs and toiletry to cater to travellers so that they can easily recognise the product they have been using at home.

</p><p>Foodstuffs and toiletry made from different plants may vary in quality because different plants may use materials or reagents (such as water used for washing, food additives) from different sources, although they are usually subject to the same standards by internal QC or public health authorities. A person may be allergic to the foodstuff or toiletry made by some plants but not others.

</p><p>To sum up, the major reasons for such a market are:

</p>

<ul><li>Lack of information</li>

<li>Recognisability</li>

<li>Avoidance of risk due to products by different plants</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2></div>

<p>A manifestation of the philosophical divide between those who support various intellectual property and <a href="Intellectual_property#Criticisms" title="Intellectual property">those who are critical of it</a>, is the divide over the legitimacy of parallel importation. Some believe that it benefits consumers by lowering prices and widening the selection and consumption of products available in the <a href="Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a>, while others believe that it discourages intellectual property owners from investing in new and <a href="Innovation" title="Innovation">innovative</a> products. Some also believe that parallel imports tend to facilitate <a href="Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>.

</p><p>This tension essentially concerns the <a href="Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> and <a href="Duty" title="Duty">duties</a> of a protected <a href="Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a>. Intellectual property rights allow the holder to sell at a price that is higher than the price one would pay in a <a href="Competition" title="Competition">competitive market</a>, but by doing so the holder relinquishes sales to those who would be prepared to buy at a price between the monopoly price and the competitive price. The presence of parallel imports in the marketplace prevents the holder from exploiting the monopoly further by <a href="Market_segmentation" title="Market segmentation">market segmentation</a>, i.e. by applying different prices to different consumers.

</p><p><a href="Consumer_organization" title="Consumer organization">Consumer organizations</a> tend to support parallel importation as it offers consumers more choice and lower prices, provided that consumers retain equivalent legal protection to locally sourced products (e.g. in the form of <a href="Warranty" title="Warranty">warranties</a> with international effect), and competition is not diminished.

</p><p>However, such organisations also warn consumers of certain risks in using parallel-imported products. Although the products may have been made to comply with the laws and customs of their place of origin, these products or their use may not comply with those in places where they are used, or some of their functions may be rendered unusable or meaningless (which may needlessly drive up prices). Electronic devices, however, suffer less from this type of risk because newer models support more than one user language.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia_2">Australia</h3></div>

<p>Importation of <a href="Video_game" title="Video game">computer games</a> and computer game hardware from <a href="Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> is a common practice for some wholesale and/or retail stockists. Many consumers now take advantage of on-line stores in <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> to purchase computer games at or near half the cost of a retail purchase from the Australian RRP. Often the versions sold by the Asian retailers are manufactured in Australia to begin with. An example is <i><a href="Crysis" title="Crysis">Crysis</a></i>, which was available from Hong Kong on-line stores for approximately A$50, but whose retail cost in Australia was close to $100. Crysis was sold in Asia using identical versions of the game box and disc, right down to including Australian censor ratings on the box.

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Parallel_trading_in_Hong_Kong" title="Parallel trading in Hong Kong">Parallel trading in Hong Kong</a></div>

<p>Importation of <a href="Colgate_(toothpaste)" title="Colgate (toothpaste)">Colgate</a> <a href="Toothpaste" title="Toothpaste">toothpaste</a> from <a href="Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> into <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>. The goods are bought in markets where the price is lower, and sold in markets where the price of the same goods is, for a variety of reasons, higher. Electronic goods like Apple's <a href="IPad" title="IPad">iPad</a> are frequently imported in Hong Kong before they're official and resold to South-East Asian early adopters for a premium.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3></div>

<p>The practice exists of luxury <a href="Car" title="Car">car</a> dealers in <a href="New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> buying <a href="Mercedes-Benz" title="Mercedes-Benz">Mercedes-Benz</a> <a href="Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a> in <a href="Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> at a low price, and importing the cars into New Zealand to sell at a price lower than the price offered by Mercedes Benz to New Zealand consumers. There are also many parallel import dealers of electronics hardware. Parallel importing is allowed in New Zealand and has resulted in a significant lowering of margins on many products.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3></div>

<p>There is an opinion, not scientifically proven, but very popular among people in Poland that "Western" washing powders are more effective in cleaning than Polish, because chemistry companies allegedly produce items of higher quality for Western Europe. Because of that, there are companies and online stores importing Western chemistry supplies to Poland (for example from Germany), even if similar brands are available there.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div>

<p>According to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bablaw.livejournal.com/">Anatoliy Semyonov</a>, trademark rights exhaustion turned national in 2002, and, as of April 2013, an act is being prepared that could make original goods imported without a permission of the producer officially "counterfeit" (by replacing things on which "a trademark is located illegally" with things "on which an illegally used trademark is located"). He notes that, according to the <a href="Criminal_Code_of_Russia" title="Criminal Code of Russia">Criminal Code</a>, illegal use of a trademark can be punished up to 6 years of imprisonment; and a similar article in the <a href="Code_of_the_Russian_Federation_on_Administrative_Offenses" title="Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses">Offences Code</a> makes goods with an illegal copy of a trademark subject to confiscation.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2022, following the exit of various Western firms from Russia as a result of the <a href="Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, a parallel import scheme was legalized to allow certain goods into Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September, the <a href="Ministry_of_Industry_and_Trade_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Industry and Trade (Russia)">trade minister</a>, <a href="Denis_Manturov" title="Denis Manturov">Denis Manturov</a>, stated that Russian consumers would be able to buy the newly announced <a href="IPhone_14" title="IPhone 14">iPhone 14</a>, despite <a href="Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> halting all sales in the country. Apple products were already being re-exported and sold in Russia through the scheme, although at a higher price.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3></div>

<p>Some <a href="PlayStation_Portable" title="PlayStation Portable">Sony PSP</a> video game consoles were imported into the <a href="European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">European Economic Area</a> from Japan up to twelve months prior to the European launch. The unusual component of this example is that some importers were selling the console for a higher price than the intended EU price, taking advantage of the relative monopoly they enjoyed. After the release the console was commonly imported from the USA where it was retailed for much lower price.

</p><p>Other example is smart phones, which were being imported from China, where an average device could be bought for about $100 while a similar device would be retailed for about €200 in the EU.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_3">United States</h3></div>

<p>A foreign manufacturer and vendor of face powder sold to A. Bourjois & Co., Inc. its business and goodwill in the US, together with its <a href="Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, registered under the <a href="Lanham_Act" title="Lanham Act">Trade Mark Act</a>; A. Bourjois & Co., Inc. re-registered the marks and went on with the business here under the old name, buying the powder from the original concern abroad and selling it in boxes bearing the trademark, and so built up a profitable trade, the public associating the marks with A. Bourjois & Co., Inc.'s goods. Katzel bought and imported the product of the foreign concern in its genuine boxes, which bore labels closely resembling those of A. Bourjois & Co., Inc. and sold it here.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_2">China</h3></div>

<p>Chinese government encourages parallel imports of vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Counterfeit_consumer_good" title="Counterfeit consumer good">Counterfeit consumer goods</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhaustion_of_intellectual_property_rights" title="Exhaustion of intellectual property rights">Exhaustion of intellectual property rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Grey_market" title="Grey market">Grey market</a></li>

<li><a href="Grey_import_vehicle" title="Grey import vehicle">Grey import vehicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Import_scene" title="Import scene">Import scene</a></li>

<li><a href="Importation_right" title="Importation right">Importation right</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_importing_in_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel importing in video games">Parallel importing in video games</a></li>

<li><a href="Track_and_trace" title="Track and trace">Track and trace</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516005011/http://www.thegrayblog.com/">The Gray Blog</a> is a blog dedicated to parallel market legal issues.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100825182748/http://www.alia.org.au/advocacy/copyright/your.ques.answered.html">Australian Library and Information Association - Statement on Parallel Importing</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dutchparalleltrading.com/">Statement on parallel import and export, or parallel trade</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413085020/https://www.dutchparalleltrading.com/">Archived</a> 13 April 2018 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100123091847/http://www.pc.gov.au/projects/study/books/report">Australian Productivity Commission 2009: "Restrictions on the Parallel Importation of Books"</a> - The Australian Productivity Commission report, released 14 July 2009, presented original research to advocate the removal of parallel import restrictions on books.</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Trademark_law245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Trademark_distinctiveness" title="Trademark distinctiveness">Distinctiveness</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_dilution" title="Trademark dilution">Dilution</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_trademark" title="Generic trademark">Generic trademark</a></li>

<li><a href="Passing_off" title="Passing off">Passing off</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_use_registration" title="Concurrent use registration">Concurrent use</a></li>

<li><a href="Priority_right" title="Priority right">Priority right</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_mark_coexistence_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade mark coexistence agreement">Coexistence agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Confusing_similarity" title="Confusing similarity">Confusing similarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Functionality_doctrine" title="Functionality doctrine">Functionality doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Initial_interest_confusion" title="Initial interest confusion">Initial interest confusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Tea_Rose_%E2%80%93_Rectanus_doctrine" title="Tea Rose – Rectanus doctrine">Good faith doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Secondary_liability" title="Secondary liability">Secondary liability</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominative_use" title="Nominative use">Nominative use</a></li>

<li><a href="Disparagement" title="Disparagement">Disparagement</a></li>

<li><a href="Reputation_parasitism" title="Reputation parasitism">Reputation parasitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybersquatting" title="Cybersquatting">Cybersquatting</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark#Well-known_status" title="Trademark">Well-known trademark</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property" title="Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property">Paris Convention</a></li>

<li><a href="Madrid_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrid Agreement">Madrid Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Madrid_Protocol" title="Madrid Protocol">Madrid Protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Agreement_on_Trade-Related_Aspects_of_Intellectual_Property_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights">TRIPS</a></li>

<li><a href="Singapore_Treaty_on_the_Law_of_Trademarks" title="Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks">Singapore Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_Trade_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Trade Mark">Community Trade Mark</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_Domain-Name_Dispute-Resolution_Policy" title="Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy">Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Australian_trade_mark_law" title="Australian trade mark law">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_trademark_law" title="Canadian trademark law">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_law_of_China" title="Trademark law of China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_mark_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Trade mark law of the European Union">European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_trademark_law" title="Indian trademark law">India</a></li>

<li>Ireland</li>

<li><a href="Japanese_trademark_law" title="Japanese trademark law">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippine_trademark_law" title="Philippine trademark law">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Kingdom_trade_mark_law" title="United Kingdom trade mark law">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_trademark_law" title="United States trademark law">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Trademark_classification" title="Trademark classification">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="International_(Nice)_Classification_of_Goods_and_Services" title="International (Nice) Classification of Goods and Services">Standard</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Registered_trademark" class="mw-redirect" title="Registered trademark">Registered trademark</a></li>

<li><a href="Service_mark" title="Service mark">Service mark</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></li>

<li><a href="Unregistered_trademark" title="Unregistered trademark">Unregistered trademark</a></li>

<li><a href="Wordmark" title="Wordmark">Wordmark</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-standard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Certification_mark" title="Certification mark">Certification marks</a></li>

<li><a href="Chartered_mark" title="Chartered mark">Chartered marks</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_trademark" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective trademark">Collective trademarks</a></li>

<li><a href="Defensive_trademark" class="mw-redirect" title="Defensive trademark">Defensive trademarks</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_registration_mark" title="Electronic registration mark">Electronic registration marks</a></li>

<li><a href="Intellectual_property_protection_of_typefaces" title="Intellectual property protection of typefaces">Font trademark</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghost_mark" title="Ghost mark">Ghost marks</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographical_indication" title="Geographical indication">Geographical indication</a></li>

<li><a href="Protected_designation_of_origin" title="Protected designation of origin">Protected designation of origin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Non-conventional_trademark" title="Non-conventional trademark">Non-conventional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Colour_trade_mark" title="Colour trade mark">Colour trademarks</a></li>

<li><a href="Hologram_trademark" title="Hologram trademark">Hologram trademarks</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_trademark" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion trademark">Motion trademarks</a></li>

<li><a href="Scent_trademark" class="mw-redirect" title="Scent trademark">Scent trademarks</a></li>

<li>Shape trademarks</li>

<li><a href="Sound_trademark" title="Sound trademark">Sound trademarks</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brand" title="Brand">Brand</a></li>

<li><a href="Emblem" title="Emblem">Emblem</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="International_Trademark_Association" title="International Trademark Association">International Trademark Association</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Intellectual_Property_Office" title="European Union Intellectual Property Office">EUIPO</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">USPTO</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_Corporation_for_Assigned_Names_and_Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers">ICANN</a></li>

<li><a href="Deutsches_Patent-_und_Markenamt" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt">Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Registered_trademark_symbol" title="Registered trademark symbol">Registered trademark symbol</a></li>

<li><a href="Service_mark_symbol" title="Service mark symbol">Service mark symbol</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_symbol" title="Trademark symbol">Unregistered trademark symbol</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Budweiser_trademark_dispute" title="Budweiser trademark dispute">Budweiser</a></li>

<li><a href="Debian%E2%80%93Mozilla_trademark_dispute" title="Debian–Mozilla trademark dispute">Debian–Mozilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Stolichnaya_trademark_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolichnaya trademark dispute">Stolichnaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugg_boots_trademark_dispute" title="Ugg boots trademark dispute">Ugg boots</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Redskins_trademark_dispute" title="Washington Redskins trademark dispute">Washington Redskins</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Trademark_attorney" title="Trademark attorney">Trademark attorney</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_examiner" title="Trademark examiner">Trademark examiner</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_infringement" title="Trademark infringement">Trademark infringement</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_share" title="Trademark share">Trademark share</a></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_troll" title="Trademark troll">Trademark troll</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Trademark_Review" title="World Trademark Review">World Trademark Review</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li>Category:Trademark law</li>

<li>WP:MOS/Trademarks</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-03" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Parallel_import&oldid=1303982179">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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